Cryogenics And The Future

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without adding or extracting heat from the gas or the
surrounding system"(Vance 26). At the same time Pictet used the "Joule-Thompson
Effect," a thermodynamic process that states that the "temperature of a fluid is
reduced in a process involving expansion below a certain temperature and
pressure"(McClintock 4). After Cailletet and Pictet, a third method, known as
cascading, was developed by Karol S. Olszewski and Zygmut von Wroblewski in
Poland. At this point in history Oxygen was now able to be liquefied at 90 K,
then soon after liquid Nitrogen was obtained at 77 K, and because of these
advancements scientist all over the world began competing in a race to lower the
temperature of matter to Absolute Zero (0 K) [Vance, 1-10].

Then in 1898, James DeWar mad a major advance when he succeeded in
liquifying hydrogen at 20 K. The reason this advance was so spectacular was
that at 20 K hydrogen is also boiling, and this presented a very difficult
handling and storage problem. DeWar ...

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where a metal loses all electrical resistance below a
certain temperature, called the Critical Temperature(Tc), and transfers to "...a
state of zero resistance,..."(Tilley 11). This unusual behavior was also
discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. It was discovered when Onnes and one of
his graduate students realized that Mercury loses all of its electrical
resistance when it reaches a temperature of 4.15 K. However, almost all
elements and compounds have Tc's between 1 K and 15 K (or -457.68 (F and -432.67
(F) so they would not be very useful to us on a day to day basis[McClintock 208-
226].

Then in 1986, J Gregore Bednorz and K. Alex Muller discovered that an
oxide of lanthanum, ...

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